Applying your knowledge of immunology, analyse the causes of Essay

Applying your knowledge of immunology, analyse the causes of Cl.difficile. Discuss interventions for the prevention of Cl.difficile and the appropriate treatment for this infection - Essay Example C. difficile is a spore forming, anaerobic bacilli, shows positive Gram reaction and is known to be associated with nosocomial diarrhea. It is an etiological representative of pseudo membranous colitis (PMC) and 15-25% of diarrhea associated with the intake of antibiotics (Bartlett, 2002). It is known that bacteria adapt to the shifting environment and so do their response to antibiotics, making them resistant and more virulent. Severity of CDAD is also associated with similar paradigm. In severe and acute cases CDAD may cause ulceration and hemorrhage. The disease encompasses diarrhea, fever, amplified fecal leukocytes, abdominal cramping and dehydration; leading to hypoalbuminaemia, toxic megacolon, colonic perforation and PMC causing amplification in morbidity and mortality (Poutanen, 2004). Pathogenic Clostridium difficile produces exotoxins- A and B. They have potential role in causing CDAD (Pothoulakis, 1996). Strains producing toxin either A+ B+ or A‑B+ are responsible for virulence while non-toxin producing strains are non virulent and do not cause diarrhea. In normal individuals, enteric pathogens are prohibited from establishment due to native intestinal microflora, contributing to host’s defense mechanism. Clostridium difficile is a potent pathogen that successfully establishes infection because of its immense ability to produce toxins thereby paving the way for C. difficile colonization. Toxins generated by C. difficile are highly enterotoxic and cytotoxic. Healthy individuals possess antibodies serum IgG and intestinal secretory IgA against toxin A, and efficiently bind to the intestinal receptors of toxin A. This is a condition where humoural response to toxin A is hampered and thus C. difficile finds way for proliferation. The action of toxin A causes disruption of epithelial cells, enhanced fluid emission, damage of mucosa, irritation and tenderness due to enhanced permeability of tight junctions causing diarrhea or PMC

Letter of Proposals on Improving Employees Productivity Case Study

Letter of Proposals on Improving Employees Productivity - Case Study Example Employee morale is at an all-time low manifested by resignations, tardiness, low productivity and other employee behaviors that indicate disinterest in their work and company. This is dangerous for the company because it undermines its competitiveness and viability as a business organization. The Research Plan There is an obvious need for management problem to address and arrest this issue among the company’s human resource. For the management implement to be effective however, we need to know what is/are the root cause/s of the employees’ discontent or disinterest with the company and their job. There are two strategies that I intend to use to get feedback and information from the employees. First is the anonymous survey so that employees can honestly provide information about their disenchantment about the management and second, through focus groups that will be conducted by a third party consultants so that employees will not be encumbered by management presence that would prevent from disclosing what they really think and feel. These combined tools will allow the management to double check consistency of findings that will help in determining the real cause of employee’s disenchantment with the company. ... sult of survey Consultant begun their focus group discussions August 2-14 Interpretation of survey results Interpretation of focus group discussions August 16-22 Drafting of report of both the survey result and focus group discussion August 23 Submission of report of the cause of employee morale and recommendation of course of action to address this issue. Qualifications I have taken classes in human resource that focuses on employee motivation and how it relates to performance and productivity. I have also attended leadership workshops on how to make people tick and on how to bring the best of them. I have taken finance classes and I am well aware how low productivity can affect the company’s position in the market. I had some marketing class and know how a poor product can affect the company’s competitiveness. I also taken some summer jobs and is well aware on how employees respond to management implements that they tend to work better if they are motivated. Conclusio n Being in the management, I am certain that you are well aware of the employee’s poor performance and high attrition rate. This proposal does not only intend to determine the root cause of such problem but will also find solution on how the management can address this kind of a problem. The methods applied in determining the root cause of our employee’s problem can also be verified by comparing the consistency of results of the two methods that will be used – survey and third party consultant focus group. The proposal is also time efficient that could produce the necessary information about the issue and its recommendations in less than two months. In effect, the proposal will allow the management to formulate plan of action/s in less than two months. This will put the management in a better

Comparing Nuclear Energy To Other Energies Sources Environmental Sciences Essay

Comparing Nuclear Energy To Other Energies Sources Environmental Sciences Essay This report contains information on five different types of energy sources. It is a literature study that compares two renewable (solar and wind) sources and two non-renewable (coal and natural gas) sources to nuclear energy. The comparison is based on factors such as usage, cost (both capital costs and running costs), safety and stability, storage of waste and the impact on the environment. The sources are individually compared to nuclear energy. In the comparisons only the factors relevant to the two energy sources being compared at any given time are considered factors are not repeated in the comparison. It also looks at whether the medias portrayal of the dangers of nuclear energy is accurate or whether it overestimates the dangers involved in producing nuclear power. The aim of the report was to determine the viability of nuclear energy as a source of power to support electricity needs of the population in the future. This is a literature study addressing the portrayal of nuclear energy by the media and its viability as an energy source in comparison to other methods of generating electricity. The report compares Nuclear energy to energy generated by coal, natural gases, wind and the sun (i.e. solar energy). The energy types are individually compared to Nuclear energy. Each section highlights specific problems and advantages associated with Nuclear energy as it relates to the energy to which it is being compared. Factors taken into consideration include the costs involved with the various types of energy, how much it is being used globally, impact on the environment, storage of waste, safety and stability. The report was written to meet the requirements laid down by JSQ216, a second year engineering subject at the University of Pretoria. The report was completed by allocating each of the four group members a specific energy to research and compare to nuclear energy. The research was then completed by using journal articles, books, internet sites and approaching two engineers about the problem. The information was processed, the reliability of the sources assessed and a short portion of the report was generated by each group member. All four parts were then put together for the final report. Figure 1: Break down of solar energy[2]The sun has been around since the beginning of time but only recently has it been used as a source of renewable energy. Approximately 120000 TW of solar energy is absorbed by the Earths surface which is equal to 10000 times the total global demand for energy. Only 0.1% of this energy would be required to satisfy the worlds present consumption of fuels.[1] There are three main ways to harness the suns energy. These include solar cells which convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar water heating where heat from the sun is used to heat water inside panels on roof tops. And lastly solar furnaces that make use of mirrors to concentrate the suns energy into a small space to produce high temperatures. As illustrated by figure 1. There are close to 440 nuclear power plants in the world today which supply 16% of the worlds energy demand, however only 1% is useable energy with the rest being nuclear waste. If 1% of the area where there is recoverable energy utilised solar energy devices all the worlds energy needs could be met with solar energy alone. If 10% of the area were to be utilised then in two years the electricity produced would be equal to all known reserves of fossil fuels.[1] Cost problems with solar energy are the high capital costs involved in the installation of solar panels which can be very expensive. The need to store energy because of solar availability due to factors such as time of day and weather conditions is also costly. Countries at higher altitudes with daily cloud cover will have an economic disadvantage due to long distance transfer of energy. Maintenance of panels also has to be considered. Nuclear energy is presently cheaper than solar power however the construction of the facilities and the disposal of radioactive waste is costly and can affect the environment.[3] Solar power is relatively safe to use as long as you do not look directly into the suns rays or come into contact with hot solar panels. In the case of nuclear power it is also safe to use as the nuclear reactors are equipped with redundant systems to make sure there is no nuclear meltdown. This makes it a very stable energy source. Nuclear energy starts to get more dangerous in the form of spent fuel rods and radioactive waste. Even though nuclear energy is reliable and stable as a whole, when something does go wrong it can become very serious and very dangerous. Solar energy does not have any form of waste as replaced panels and components can be reused or recycled. Nuclear energy has two types of waste products, the spent fuel rods which if not stored properly in pools of water to cool down could become very unstable. The other form is radioactive gasses and other waste products that if released into the atmosphere can pose various risks. Solar energy produces no waste or pollution. Waste from nuclear power must be sealed and stored underground for long periods of time. This waste must be kept safe from external factors and from human contact in order to prevent a threat. Such a threat is currently under way at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant in Japan where a pool of spent fuel rods caught fire this year. Solar power is a renewable power source therefore it is environmentally friendly. It is silent and requires no fuel therefore there is no pollution. It even decreases the amount of harmful green house gasses. Although there are many advantages to solar energy there is still the fact that a large amount of panels is required to produce the needed electricity. This becomes very costly. It is reliable and has no risks that are associated with nuclear energy. Nuclear energy on the other hand is not a renewable source and if not handled in the correct way could impact the environment in a negative way. Even though it does not contribute to global warming like other fossil fuels, the waste gasses it does produce could potentially cause radioactive sicknesses and cancer in humans and other life forms. A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of solar and nuclear energy can be found in the tables below Table 1: Advantages of Solar and Nuclear Energy Solar Energy Nuclear Energy Renewable energy source Does not emit green house gasses Has no volatile waste Plenty of resources available Once panels are in place the energy is free Cheaper than solar power Table 2: Disadvantages of Solar and Nuclear Energy Solar Energy Nuclear Energy Does not work at night Radioactive waste Currently very expensive Long-term storage required for waste products Requires big fields in order to harvest a suitable amount of energy Some reactors produce plutonium which can be used to make nuclear weapons All around the world we require every energy source that we can get including nuclear. All energy sources have both pros and cons. Even though nuclear energy is portrayed as an unstable source of energy it is in fact one of the most reliable and stable types in the world today. The downside is in its waste that if treated incorrectly could land in the hands of terrorists. In the next 20 years there will be emerging economies throughout the globe that will require low cost, environmentally friendly alternative energy sources and Nuclear power is expected to satisfy this demand. Wind Energy Wind power is the generation of electricity through the use of wind to spin turbines, which in turn, convert the winds kinetic energy into electricity. [1] The process of using wind as a power source has been in use throughout history from around the 12th century where windmills were used to mill grain. [2] Wind power generation uses wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power and wind pumps for pumping water. [2] It is a renewable energy source that not many countries have attempted to develop. Wind Power Worldwide June 2010 [3] Country Capacity (MW) USA 36.3 China 33.8 Germany 26.4 Spain 19.5 India 12.1 Rest of the World 46.9 Total 175.00Table 3: Wind Power Worldwide June 2010 In June 2010, The World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) published that 5 countries alone accounted for approximately 73% of the worlds total wind energy production namely USA, China, Germany, Spain and India. [3] Figure 2: World Electricity Production 2008 On the other hand, nuclear energy production seems to be far more popular in a lot of countries with some countries such as the USA and France having no less than 104 and 59 nuclear reactors in operation respectively [4] in early 2010. A study done in 2008 to find the percentage of each type of energy that is globally produced showed that wind forms part of only 2.8% whereas nuclear energy accounts for 13.4% of the worlds total power. The main disadvantage of wind power is the unreliability of the wind itself. In most areas the winds strength is too low to spin a turbine. However, if wind energy were to be used in unison with solar and/or geothermal energy it could be developed into a stable and reliable source of power. The wind turbines themselves are quite safe with only a few reported cases worldwide of damaged blades caused by bad weather, none of which has resulted in any known injuries. [5] Nuclear reactor plants make use of radioactive materials to generate electricity. The idea that these materials could become unstable and get out of control is one of the main concerns (along with radiation poisoning) for countries producing nuclear energy. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986 lead to better, more efficient protocols being put into practice leaving most countries to believe that they are now better prepared to handle any destabilizing of the nuclear materials. [6] Nonetheless, wind energy remains theoretically a lot safer than nuclear plants even with all the safety precautions they take. The consequences are much higher for a nuclear disaster than for a wind turbine failure. Wind turbines do not emit any waste products as they do not burn any sort of fossil fuels or radioactive materials, so there is no concern over where to store or dispose of emissions safely- unlike nuclear energy. The radioactive materials (like Uranium and Plutonium) that are used up in nuclear power plants continue to produce dangerous radiation for thousands of years after they have been used up as a fuel for nuclear energy. The most effective way to store these depleted materials has not yet been found but for now they are being kept in underground storage pools where they will not be harmful to anybody. [7] The initial setups of both wind turbines and nuclear power plants are quite costly. But once built, wind turbines are cheaper to maintain than the power plants, but they are both relatively cheaper to maintain than their fossil fuel counterparts with the nuclear materials lasting a very long time and with wind being a free resource to be used. Environmental Impact: Both wind and nuclear energy as it is being produced, is friendly to the surrounding environment (except in the tragic case where radiation is leaked from the power plant). However, wind turbines do make more noise than the power plants which is disruptive to any locals staying near the turbines. [8] The amount of space that a wind turbine takes is less than that of an average nuclear power plant and the disruption to the environment during construction is worse for the power plants because they take so much longer to be built. [8] Coal Energy Coal, the most abundant and affordable of the fossil fuels (1), is a non-renewable energy source. It has been used as a source of energy for thousands of years and has numerous important uses such as in electricity generation, steel and cement manufacture, and industrial process heating. Coal often proves to be the only alternative when low-cost, cleaner energy sources are unable to meet the growing energy demand faced with today (1). Fossil fuels are formed from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals that have undergone changes due to heat and pressure over millions of years. The process is still taking place today but the rate of energy storage is small. The annual biomass production stored this way represents only around 0.001% of the current world energy use (2). Even though charcoal can be made artificially, it is not possible to produce it at the rate of consumption (3). Therefore, coal is regarded as a non-renewable energy source and is bound to get depleted. According to BPs (British Petroleum) Statistical Review of World Energy 2010, there is a estimated 826001 million tons of proven coal reserves worldwide, or 119 years reserves-to-production ratio(length of time that the remaining coal reserves would last if production were to continue at the previous years rate )(4). However, compared to other fossil fuels, coal reserves are the largest ones and are more evenly distributed worldwide. Nuclear energy is also a non-renewable source as it is reliant upon a finite source of fuel that can be exhausted. Although, the worlds known uranium resources increased by 15% in two years to 2007 owing to increased mineral exploration The uranium (and sometimes plutonium) used in nuclear power is a natural resource and is a common metal found in rocks all over the world. The World Nuclear Association suggested that there is approximately (13) 160 years of supply at todays rate of consumption. Coal is mainly used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat. The coal is usually pulverized and then combusted in a furnace with a boiler for the generation of electricity. The steam which results from the combustion is then used to spin turbines, which drives the generators thus creating electricity. When coal is heated at approximately 1000 degrees Celsius in an airless environment, Coke is produced. The Coke is then used is used to smelt iron ore for the production of steel. A by-product of this heating is Coal gas, which is a composition of methane and hydrogen, is produced. Coal gas was used for residential lighting and cooking in the 1940s; but it was very costly and so it was stopped. However, in recent times, these gasification processes are being developed to be more cost effective and so coal gas is often used as fuel for engines. Nuclear power plants create electricity through a process called fission in which subatomic particles called neutrons split uranium atoms, producing tremendous amounts of energy. The result of the fission of these large atoms is the creation of smaller atoms and radiation. The energy produced is then absorbed by water which heats it and so stream is produced. The steam is then used to spin turbines as in the case with coal power plants. According to the Key World Energy Statistics 2010 (5), 27% of the worldwide energy demand was fulfilled by coal in 2009.Coal was the second largest source of energy followed by Oil supplying 33.2%. China is a major producer with coal with coal always playing a dominant role in its primary energy consumption. China consumed a high 46,9% of the coal supplied and produced the most coal (45,6%) according to the BP Statistical World Energy Review 2010. World primary energy demand is expected to continue to grow steadily, as it has over the last two decades According to the International Energy Outlook 2010 (an assessment by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) of the outlook for international energy markets through 2035), world consumption of coal increases by 56% over the next two decades(6). Nuclear energy supplies the world 5.8% of the worlds consumption which is less than a quarter of what coal supplies. This is expected as there are only 442 operable nuclear power stations world-wide, the first one being created about 50 years ago which is relatively recent. The extraction of coal involves two types of mining: surface (strip) mining and underground mining. Surface mining involves the removal of coal deposits close to earths surface whereas underground mining is removing deposits found hundreds of meters below the earths surface. Underground mining accounts to approximately 60% of the worlds coal production (7) and requires the creation of shafts and tunnels that are dug in to the coal layers. There have been numerous tragic occurrences in the history of coal mining as it is a very risky business and devastating accidents occur in all countries that produce commercial quantities of this mineral. Most mining accidents occur as a result of cave-ins, methane explosions, mine wall failures, vehicle collisions or the flooding of the mine shafts. Also suffocation, gas poisoning, respiratory ailments (mainly Black Lung Disease) were common. Over 100,000 miners have dies over the past century in coal-mining accidents in the U.S (2nd largest producers of coal) only (8). However, most of these risks have been reduced in present-day mines owing to modern technology and health and safety acts setting stricter standards. Nevertheless, in lesser developed countries and some developing countries, continue to experience significant numbers of mining fatalities each year. The abundance of coal makes it easily accessible and the use of cheaper modes of transportation makes this resource an inexpensive form of energy when compared to energies such as solar, wind or hydro. It is also slightly cheaper than the costs involved in producing nuclear energy. When comparing the economics in producing energy from these two sources, it is important to consider several different types costs associated with both coal and nuclear energy. This includes costs associated with the fuel used in the production of energy which tend to be lower in a nuclear plant even though more intricate steps are involved in the production of the fuel assemblies used in the reactors. Transportation costs are, however, high for coal because a significantly large amount of coal is needed to generate the same energy as with the nuclear fuel. The capital costs are the costs associated with the initial construction of the plant and the modifications forms an important part when comparing the costs. For a nuclear plant, these costs are usually higher than for any other energy forms as the buildings used for containment or the safety-related equipment need to meet higher standards than those met by traditional coal plants. On the other hand, coal plants are required to include scrubbers to remove airborne pollutants as a result of the burning of the coal. Another consideration is the operation and maintenance costs involved. These are the costs involved in the day-to-day operation of the coal and nuclear plants. This includes labour costs, material costs, government fees and property taxes. It is found that the costs are very similar in both the plants. The costs associated with the by-product waste should also be taken into account. For a coal plants, this is the coal ash and for a nuclear plant, these costs include a charge levied by the government for ultimate storage of the high level waste. This charge is a flat fee based on energy use. The waste costs for nuclear energy is considerably higher than the costs for coal plants. Thus, the costs involved in producing coal and nuclear energy are roughly the same (9). The burning of coal is known to contribute to global warming, and is linked to environmental and health issues such as acid rain, smog and asthma owing to the particulate emissions that are emitted from power stations. According to the World Health Organisation, it is estimated that air pollution kills more than 2 million people annually (10). Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2, a greenhouse gas which causes global warming and climate change in the air (11). Strip mining causes large areas of land to be temporarily disturbed and this causes soil erosion and impacts on local biodiversity as after the land has been scraped and quarried for coal, it is usually abandoned. The waste after coal has been combusted is often disposed of in landfills or surface impoundments, which are lined with compacted clay soil and a plastic sheet. As rain filters through the toxic ash pits over years, the toxic metals are leached out into the local environment. Coal sludge i s the liquid coal waste generated by washing coal and is known to contain toxins, and so leaks or spills can pollute underground and surface waters. (12) Natural Gas Energy The Natural Gas used in power production is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas made primarily of methane and other hydrocarbons (including ethane, propane, butanes and pentanes). It also contains carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen, in smaller quantities. Natural gas is a molecular compound with Van Der Waal attraction between its molecules[1]. It has a boiling point of -161oC and is stable at a wide variety of temperatures and pressures[1]. Natural gas is transported in its liquid form as it taken up 600 times less space as a liquid than it does as a gas and weighs 55% less than the same volume of water. It is a result of the decomposition of plants and animals and is found in pockets beneath the earth and ocean. Natural gas is an important source of power in the modern world. According to Makogen (2010:49) if we were to use 17 to 20% of the worlds natural gas resources, we would be able to provide the world with energy for 200 years. Although it currently only accounts for 20% of the worlds energy, the demand is expected to increase substantially over the next 20 years. It is a cleaner fuel source than any other fossil fuel[2] emitting nearly no sulphur dioxide and far less carbon dioxide and NHx than either oil or coal. Natural gases can also be used in conjunction with other power generation methods, such as biomass[3], to produce energy which will change the amount of pollutants emitted. Nuclear stations do not produce the same pollutants as fossil fuels do but waste management remains the primary concern in nuclear technology. The waste products of a nuclear station are isotopes with extremely long half-lives. The storage of these waste products means creating a safe storage space that needs to last longer than all the human civilisations combined. There are three different levels of nuclear waste, high level, medium level and low level. Low level waste is not very dangerous and disposing of it is not a problem. The danger comes in with high level radioactive waste. The waste is encased in concrete drums and buried up to a kilometre and a half into the ground[5]. However, high level radioactive waste cannot be stored near any other high level radioactive waste as it will interact with the other waste. It is also important to find stable ground in which to store the waste, as concrete can crack and break in the event of an earthquake or tremor. South Africa is one of the safer places to store nuclear waste as it has a geologically stable countryside. Some areas, like the northern Karoo, have experienced about 30 000 years of stability. In between the removal of the waste from use and the final storage of the waste it needs to be left to soak in water for a period of time, to get rid of some of the residual radiation. In this time the fuel rods need to be safely guarded as the waste products are used in the creation of dirty bombs and nuclear bombs. A dirty bomb is a normal bomb containing high level radioactive waste and is detonated above a city, allowing the radioactive particles to contaminate the water supply in addition to other damage. [5]Plutonium, one of the waste products of a nuclear power station, is a primary component in atom bombs and the rods often have to be processed to remove all plutonium before they can be disposed. The use to which the waste products can be used also means that measures need to be taken in ensuring that any country with a nuclear power station does not use the waste in a nuclear weapons program. It also leaves a country more vulnerable to nuclear attack as should a dirty or atom bomb land near a nuclear station the products of the two would react with each other, compounding damage. The waste from a nuclear station can be greatly reduced by the correct management of the station but it still remains a serious threat. Cold fusion could theoretically produce energy without radioactive waste but experiments with cold fusion have produced very little energy, not even enough to power a light bulb. Cold fusion is also regarded as a scam by many scientists and has the same notoriety as perpetual motion and free energy in many scientific circles[9]. The level of efficiency of natural gas as a power source is, however, very much dependent on the technology used to produce the power. In a comparison of different technologies[4] it was found that Natural Gas combined cycle technology was the most efficient of the Natural Gas technologies. The technologies were compared based on efficiency, capital costs, maintenance costs, the service life and electricity costs (calculated based on the cost of the fuel, the maintenance costs, capital cost and service life). The capital costs of the combined cycle technology were just over à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬500 with an expected maintenance cost of less than à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬0.005 per kilo Watt hour and a service life of 20 years (i.e. the time the plant operates before equipment needs to be replaced.) A nuclear station has to replace its one third of its fuel rods annually[5] Comparatively, a nuclear stations capital costs are higher than any other fuel source[6] but they produce electricity at a very low cost which offsets the initial high cost. This can be seen in figure 2, below, which shows a comparison of the cost to generate energy for various technologies. The cost of power from a nuclear plant also tends to remain stable[7] even if the cost of uranium varies as up top 75% of the fuel cost in a nuclear plant is to cover the start-up cost. On the other hand, natural gas prices are very dependent on the supply and so prices tend to vary. Natural gas is also subject to carbon taxes in some countries because of its emissions, which reduces its cost efficiency. Figure 3: Cost of Energy Generation for Different Technologies Location also plays a very important role in determining whether or not natural gas or nuclear energy is the most efficient solution of a country. A country that is abundant in fossil fuels and does not pay carbon taxes would find that natural gas was a far more suitable technology. However, when it becomes necessary to import natural gases, the supply security of the plant becomes compromised and it Nuclear may be a more financially viable option. Both Nuclear and Natural Gas sources have the advantages of being able to supply on demand. Most renewable energy resources are offered on an as-available basis[8]. This means that you do not need to run a coal station alongside a nuclear station in case it does not produce enough energy to meet demand. Conclusion Media is incorrect in portrayal, too extreme but still not safe Waste disposal is dangerous, careful consideration as to storage facilities Safety, security Vulnerability to nuclear attack

What are the Effects of Marriage and Religion on African Americans in U

What are the Effects of Marriage and Religion on African Americans in Urban America? The last three decades have witnessed a â€Å"retreat from marriage† in the United States, marked by high rates of nonmarital births, lower rates of marriage, and divorce. Although a growing body of research on the retreat from marriage has focused on its social and economic causes, little attention has been paid to the role that cultural institutions play in furthering or resisting the retreat from marriage. This paper focuses on the role that religious institutions—and the cultural norms and behaviors they promote—play in resisting this retreat among new parents in urban America. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we find that urban mothers who attend church regularly are significantly more likely to be married at the time of birth compared to urban mothers who do not attend church frequently, and that urban mothers who have a nonmarital birth are significantly more likely to marry within a year of that birth if they attend church f requently. These religious effects are mediated in part by the relationship-related beliefs and behaviors promoted by churches. Church-going urban mothers express higher levels of normative commitment to the institution of marriage. They also are more likely to benefit from higher levels of supportive behavior (e.g., affection) from the father of their children and lower levels of conflict with the father over sexual fidelity. Thus, by fostering beliefs and behaviors that support matrimony, religious institutions help urban mothers make the transition to marriage in communities where marriage has become increasingly infrequent. Recently, there has been a huge decline in marriage... ...ay also help explain distinctive class, racial, and ethnic patterns of marriage. Works Cited Furstenberg, Frank. 2001. â€Å"The Fading Dream: Prospects for Marriage in the Inner City.† In Problem of the Century, edited by E. Anderson and D. Massey. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation Allison, Paul D. 1995. Survival Analysis using the SAS System: A Practical Guide. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.. Anderson, Katherine, Don Browning, and Brian Boyer. 2002. Marriage: Just a Piece of Paper? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Axinn, William G. and Arland Thornton. 2000. â€Å"The Transformation in the Meaning of Marriage.† In The Ties that Bind, edited by L. Waite. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. Thornton, Arland, William G. Axinn, and Daniel H. Hill. 1992. â€Å"Reciprocal Effects of Religiosity, Cohabitation, and Marriage.† American Journal of Sociology 98:628-651.

Jit in Service Sector

This issue s covered by adopting an indirect approach. All the benefits which are obtained using KIT are listed and then their corresponding implementation In service sector Is discussed. It is observed that all the utilities of KIT like Reducing cost, Improving Quality, Improving Performance, Improving Delivery, Adding Flexibility and Increasing Innovativeness are implemented in service industry. This helps us to understand that basic philosophy remains the same, only Implementation methodology Is changed.IT is a philosophy of continuous improvement in which non-value-adding activities re identified and removed for the purposes of: Reducing cost Improving Quality Improving Performance Improving Delivery Adding Flexibility Increasing Innovativeness IT is not about automation. KIT eliminates waste by providing the environment to perfect and simplify the processes. KIT is a collection of techniques used to improve operations. It can also be a new production system that is used to produ ce goods or services.All the above utilities of Just in Time concept indicates that this concept is not sector specific concept. It can also be employed in service sector. Service Sector In order to define services, it is not enough to say simply that they are intangible acts as opposed to tangible goods. Most modern products are a combination of both. For example, when purchasing a washing machine the customer also receives services such as installation, maintenance and repair. When getting a haircut, the customer will likely also benefit from a number of hair care products and might even purchase some for home use.Therefore services can be characterized with the following important features: Intangibility: services cannot generally be seen, tasted, felt, heard or smelled before they are bought. ? Inseparability: services are produced and consumed at the same time. Variability: the quality of the same service may vary depending on who provides it as well as when and how it is provi ded. Permissibility: services cannot be stored for later sales or use; lack of demand cannot be evened out by producing to an inventory.Several of the features enumerated above do not apply to modern information technology-based services. There, personal contact does not have any importance (e. G. , on-line learning in its purest form, on-line banking, etc. ) and variability is greatly reduced t I not eliminated completely. Due to this heterogeneity in services it is difficult to classify them in a useful manner. Implementation of KIT in Service Sector The key principles of KIT in any system are: no wastage, total visibility, and flexibility in the use of human and material resources.In any environment these principles translate into three simple rules: don't start any work unless the demand signal indicates a need for more material; if the demand signal indicates a need, work to fill that need; and, never exceed the queue-size limit . KIT is now fully integrated into service sector , although the use of the term KIT is rarely used. All the objectives aimed by employing KIT is achieved in service sector as seen below. Reducing Cost In Service sector â€Å"return on investment† (ROI) has traditionally translated to â€Å"cut costs. Certainly, organizations today are under tremendous pressure from management and from customers to deliver a higher level of service at lower cost, and to do so using existing resources. Any expenditure they do make to help them achieve this goal is expected to deliver a measurable, hard-dollar ROI, and deliver it quickly. Similar to manufacturing sector, cost can be reduced by adopting administration. Service sector can delivers standardization by applying the principles to the way people, business processes, and technology are organized.All three have become so interlinked that change to one must be addressed in all three. Uses of Information technology in various service sector industries have led to standardization. Standa rdization can be adopted by using the industry standards, reusable components, and consistent implementation. Industry Standard Architecture Industry standards provide a consistent enterprise-wide approach for deploying IT at the lowest cost. Reducing the diversity of your IT environment drives down the costs of implementing change.Industry standards enable different components in a heterogeneous environment to work together consistently. Today's standards will also help facilitate the integration of tomorrow's standards and solutions. Standards drive efficiencies and economies of scale, increase flexibility and provide greater choice. They lower the cost of computing compared to proprietary offerings and provide the foundation for innovations that enhance functionality and the user experience.Standards also facilitate common training, best practices and the reuse f knowledge. Reusable component Reusable components break down silos of IT into modular assets. This building blocks app roach applies to system elements, application and infrastructure services and people. The rapid adoption of web services is the result of standard, industry- recognized IT components that address the need to reduce cost, implement new services quickly and efficiently, and scale rapidly.Consistent Implementation Consistent implementation provides a standardized approach to the way work is organized, establishing a common framework for business and IT A consistent approach to implementation increases productivity and enables the rapid redeployment tot resources to meet changing business demand and reduces the time required to implement change, improves operational efficiency, and increases flexibility when deploying human resources or changing business processes.Example McDonald's Corporation will migrate more than 4,000 stores to run on CO'S Open Server Release 5 platform over the next two years. McDonald's implementation of Open Server will assist in relaying data from the stores' p oint-of-sale machines to McDonald's corporate headquarters, as well as provide access to corporate applications. Open Server also helps McDonald's reduce costs by allowing the use of less expensive hardware and enabling the networking and speed provided by newer hardware. Improving Quality According to Curran (1999), quality can be defined as fitness for use.The term can also be understood as features of the product which meet customer needs and thereby provide customer satisfaction and as freedom from deficiencies – errors that require rework or result in field failures, customer dissatisfaction and claims etc. In order to improve quality in the service sector it is important to realize that every recess generates information that can be used for its improvement. No organization should neglect the opportunity to take a close look at accumulated data as part of the operations.With this data it is possible to discover hidden patterns in process deficiencies, form different hyp othesis as to what might be the reasons for deficiencies, etc. In short, use the scientific method to increase profitability and competitiveness of the organization as a whole by improving processes and customer satisfaction. Statistical tools for improvement of service quality The basic statistical toolbox includes a set of seven tools. Among them are check sheets, the Parent chart, the cause-and-effect diagram, histograms, stratification, scatter plots and graphs (including the control chart).They help people see how often things happen, when and where they happen and in what different forms they may present themselves to the observer. These tools are widely used in the service industry. Example The President of a relatively small mortgage-lending bank facing a serious competition of similar institutions had decided that in order to survive in the market ,excellent service should be the banks trademark. They selected team conducted a preliminary statistical study of transaction da ta. Team members found out that the average time to complete a loan was 24 days.A market analysis showed that a shorter time period to obtain a home loan would give the bank a significant advantage over the competitors. The banks President nominated a team to work on reducing the waiting time for the loans approval. After flowcharting the process on the basis of available transaction data and observing the processing of new loans for 3 months, the team found out that enormous time savings could be achieved. A Parent chart indicated that an overwhelming part of the elapsed time was due to the documents traveling between various offices since they had to be read and approved by so many different people.Further analysis showed that the steps in the process could be combined, and get done by one person. This could greatly reduce boot TN waiting time and the potential for errors. As a consequence, a set of standard operating procedures was prepared for the new process. After the system c hanges were implemented, a statistical study showed that the average time to obtain a home non was reduced to 4 days, providing this bank with a significant advantage over its competitors. Improving performance Performance in a service sector can be improved by using various approaches.Any or all of the following approaches will improve organizational performance depending on if they are implemented comprehensively and remain focused on organizational results. Broad Overview of Various Approaches The following descriptions are general and brief. Balanced Scorecard: Focuses on four indicators, including customer perspective, internal-business processes, learning and growth and financial, to monitor progress award organization's strategic goals Benchmarking: Using standard measurements in a service or industry for comparison to other organizations in order to gain perspective on organizational performance.For example, there are emerging standard benchmarks for universities, hospitals, etc. Business Process Reengineering: Aims to increase performance by radically re-designing the organization's structures and processes, including by starting over from the ground up. Cultural Change: Cultural change is a form of organizational transformation, that is, radical and fundamental form of change. Cultural change involves changing the basic values, norms, beliefs, etc. , among members of the organization.Knowledge Management: Focuses on collection and management of critical knowledge in an organization to increase its capacity for achieving results. Its effectiveness toward reaching overall results for the organization depends on how well the enhanced, critical knowledge is applied in the organization. Learning Organization: Focuses on enhancing organizations systems (including people) to increase an organization's capacity for performance. Management by Objectives (MOB): Aims to align goals and fortunate objectives throughout the organization Program Evaluation: Program evaluation is used for a wide variety of applications, e. . , to increase efficiencies of program processes and thereby cut costs, to assess if program goals were reached or not, to quality programs for accreditation, etc. Strategic Planning: Organization-wide process to identify strategic direction, including vision, mission, values and overall goals. Direction is pursued by implementing associated action plans, including multi- level goals, objectives, time lines and responsibilities. Strategic planning is, of course, form of planning. Improving Delivery The delivery in service sector is improved by the introduction of Internet and information technology.It has bridged the gap between customer and service provider. Now it is possible to take orders on computer, maintain a database of clients on network and use it as and when required. Customer segments vary by need, size and service levels so it is difficult for one delivery channel to serve all segments efficiently. Providers ca n oaten increase snare tot wallet Witt under- penetrated customer segments by creating niche-focused delivery channels. A low venue segment, for example, can be assigned to a telephone channel at a lower cost while providing services designed to increase customer satisfaction.The niche- focused channel can be developed so it replicates the sales and service functions that traditional face-to-face delivers to more profitable segments. Contact center representatives can identify and prioritize customer needs and then deliver solutions that have high value to the customer. The path to such solutions begins with an evaluation of current channel performance to diagnose opportunities. Compare current and desired future state metrics of each channel. Then restructure key components of the delivery system for each line of business and each customer cluster.Look for solutions that guide customers into more efficient channels while actually improving service to the customer. Adding flexibilit y The only way companies can continue to empower employees and reduce the bureaucracy within their operation is to use flexible people–people who can do more than one task. Business needs workers who are ascertained in other skills and who also participate in such traditional managerial concerns as Job planning, organizing, and controlling. Flexible people are also having an impact on the service industry. One example, reported by Fortune (Ulster 1989), is Lecher, Inc. A store retail chain owned by Dayton Hudson. Experimenting with flexibility as a competitive tool, Lecher began by offering employees in its Sarasota, Florida facility raises based on the number of Jobs each learned to perform. Cashiers were encouraged to sell records and tapes. Sporting goods salespeople were taught to operate forklifts. What are the benefits to Lecher? Flexibility in the work force has helped the company adjust quickly to shifts in staffing needs because workers can be moved to where hey are needed. Pay incentives plus the chance for more varied and interesting work days are powerful recruiting incentives.Perhaps that is one reason Lechery's Sarasota facility has a more stable work force–60 percent full time, rather than the 30 percent that exists in the rest of the chain. Increasing Innovativeness Innovation is clearly critical to the dynamism of the service sector, in particular as information and communication technologies are applied to re-engineer business processes, to create and extend service offerings, and to realize entirely new business models Type tot Innovation, by sector [pick] Due to the heterogeneous nature of services, innovation can take very different shapes in different areas.As shown in figure, in service sector innovation is primarily happening in terms of organizational changes. Companies are becoming horizontally integrated and Job enlargement is the key driver for the organizational change. Today, it typically leads to a stronger focus on â€Å"core business†, enhancing firms' capacity to excel in a narrower band of products. The increased tendency towards outsourcing is one element of this trend. Another one is the establishment of more mutinous and mutually beneficial relationships between firms.Organizational change serves in part to improve co-operation both within and between organizations; it is often essential for reaping the gains of innovation as well as for promoting successful innovation. Hence it is observed that in service sector KIT is implemented in a different way, yet it lead to the same result. KIT is now fully integrated into service sector, although the use of the term KIT is rarely used. Examples of KIT implementation in service sector McDonald's, Domino's and federal Express, who compete on speed and still provide heir products and services at low cost and increasing variety. ? Lens provider, cleaner and car-repair services can turn around customer orders in an hour. Supermarkets repleni sh their shelves according to what the customers withdraw. Retail stores can provide customers with more choice faster than ever before. Stores can now track customer buying habits in real-time and change their orders daily. Conclusion It is seen that elements of KIT can be applied to almost any operation, including service operations. The philosophy remains the same, only the methodology and ways of implementation changes.

Business communication review Essay

Introduction A group of friends and I have decided to make a small business known as ‘Beyond The Scoop’. I have now been asked to create a detailed report on the different type of communication. ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION Video Conferencing image00.png Video conferencing is widely being used as the rise of technology is improving. Video conferencing is basically a direct video interface in which both people can see and hear each other. It is used in large cooperation as it requires a lot of money to acquire the equipment for video conferencing. HSBC have recently been using Video Conferencing as they have a range of banks all around the world. They use video conferencing in order to talk about propositions and other matters without the need of travelling. Video Conferencing will reduce a great deal of expense as people no longer need travel to far distances to meet. This means people would be more flexible to communicate to other people with the comfort of talking from their own home. On the other hand, video conferencing requires a lot of money for it to run properly. Since you need high internet speed to have a stable video conference and high internet speed require more money. Furthermore, the equipment itself and can add up to the thousands and there is no guarantee for a stable connection as internet providers have peak times in which most people’s connection are low. Additionally, when speaking on video conferencing it is hard to determine on whose turn is it talk and can cause a lot of frustration. Purpose The purpose of video conferencing is to discuss and explain about issues. Emailimage01.png Email has taken a big role nowadays and is now surpassing the need for letters. It is commonly used throughout the world from teenagers to big cooperate businesses. The basic function of email is a message sent electronically. One business which uses email would be ‘Amazon’. Amazon sends email to customers informing customers about their products as well as delivery information. This is a great advantage as people don’t have to wait a long period of time to get information in comparison to the average memo. Since a person simply needs to login to their email and the message will appear. You also have the advantage of knowing whether or not a person has read the message and if they have received it. This great advantage in case an employee states he did not receive information from another colleague a person can easily just login to their email and check. Email also eliminates the need for using paper and this is great advantage as it is environmentally friendly and it could be used for something else. An email is also superior when it comes to receiving a message in comparison to a letter. This is because an email can be sent to a person in a few seconds whereas a letter may a take a few days. In addition, sending an email is usually free where as you have to pay for sending a letter. While email has many advantages it also has a few disadvantages. For example, it requires internet access to work and if the internet is down an email could not be sent. In addition, emails also have the ability to send virus along with the email and could endanger the computer receiving it. Also, people tend to get a lot of spam and phishing which could lead to the user being victim to giving financial information. Purpose The purpose of an email is usually to inform colleagues about task as well as key information. It can also be used to explain task and what are the requirements for each tasks. Website image02.png Website have become so important to the extent where some businesses simply use them rather than having an actual building to sell their products for example ‘Woolworths’. Woolworths have all the products on their website and they also provide free delivery. Having a website means manufactures can sell products without the need of maintaining a store which can be highly expensive. Furthermore, some people are restricted to stay at home and going on a website is easy as you only require a computer and internet access to access a website. A website also has the advantage of easily being updated. For example if a company like ‘Argos’ had a new product it could easily update that on their website. Moreover, a website is also able to present information in various forms for example; sound, images, videos and written information. These features are relatively cheap and be acquired or made easily. However, a website is not perfect for example it has the flaws of requiring internet access. As internet access is not always available to customer, customers cannot always access the website. Furthermore, some users have difficulties navigating through website because they are not great with computers. Some websites may also contain inappropriate images or have inappropriate adverts which might not be suitable for some users. It may have some offensive images which could lead to law suits. Purpose The purpose of a website is usually to persuade people into buying their products. It can also be used to inform readers on prices and contact details. SPOKEN Face to Face Face to face communication has reduced in the past few years as technology such as telephones, social networking websites and video conferencing has came out. One company which use face to face is ‘PC Worlds’. PC World use face to face during meetings to discuss important issues. Face to Face communication still has many advantages. One advantage is that you don’t need to rely on internet or any signals to be able to talk. Moreover, you are more likely to tell if a person is lying when you are talking face to face. Whereas, via email someone can be discrete and can easily lie and it would be hard to identify since you cannot see their facial expression. Via face to face you are also able to use facial expressions and body language to get your point across e.g. to be serious, persuasive or happy.image03.png The disadvantages are that you have to be at a close distance to be able to talk and if you are not then you might have to pay travel cost to be able close enough to be able to talk. Moreover, face to face communication requires time as you would have to talk to several people for confirmation that they are available and you would also need to organise a place and time which would suit and this would take a large portion of time to organise. Purpose The purpose of face o face communication can be to inform, explain, entertain and describe. Radioimage04.png Radio is regularly used to promote businesses as they are listened to by a vast amount of people. For example a company called ‘Capital’ are a radio company which advertise a few companies on their channel. Radio communications have the advantage of being widely listened as a lot of people listen to radio regularly during the morning. It is also a fact that radio communication has increasing more in comparison to other communication. This means there is wider audience to talk to. It is also significantly cheaper to use radio communication in comparison to television communication. Radio communication has now recently been available on most phones and cars and this means an even rider range of audience. The disadvantages are that it is only able to provide vocal communication and not visual communication. This means if a business was to advertise their products it would be hard to make a decent advertisement on radio as you would only hear about the product. Furthermore, radio communication tends not to have strong signals and a person can easily encounter interruptions in comparison to an internet connection. Purpose Radio communication is usually to entertain as most channels tend to provide music to listen to as well as interesting discussions. It can be used to inform as some radio stations provide information about the weather and other information. PRINT Postersimage05.png Posters are information and images on paper which are stuck on buildings. They are used by small business and sometimes big businesses to advertise their business. For example ‘GPU’ use posters as they have quite unique designs and are very effective. Posters have the advantage of being cheap. It is very simple to make a poster however for it to be effective it must have vibrant colours to ensure it makes contact with people when they walk by. You can also make several copies and it would attract a large audience. Due to the fact it is very cheap it does have several disadvantages. One would be that a poster can be placed a top of your poster. Or someone could damage your poster. Furthermore, people usually walk by and don’t often look out for posters unless it is really eye catching. Purpose Posters are often used to entertain readers and intrigue readers with vibrant colours and outstanding images. It also is used to inform reader on key information. Letters Letters are used in most businesses for example ‘HSBC’ give letters informing their clients about their bank information every month. Letters have been used for a long portion of time however they are slowly being replace by email. Letters have the advantage of not needing internet connection as well as the fact you can’t get viruses from them. Furthermore, you can send products to the recipient for example ‘free samples’ where as you are unable to do via email. image06.png The disadvantage of letters is that it is a waste of trees and contributes to global warming. It also takes a significantly longer portion of time to receive in comparison to an email or a fax. In addition, it also requires money in order to send a letter whereas emailing is free as well as instant. Purpose The purpose of a letter is used to inform and explain to people on particular information. It can also be used to convey personal opinions. Memorandumimage07.png Memos were often used before emails. Schools such as Swanlea use memos to inform other teachers on some tasks. The advantages of memos is that it has the ability to remind employees on small matters which they must do. The disadvantages are that a memo can simply be lost and it may not get to the receiver. Moreover, a person can deny that they were asked to do a task on the memo since there won’t be any proof that the sender sent a memo in the first place. Whereas in an email there is sold proof that you have sent an email and recently you can now tell if a person has read your email. Purpose A memo is used to inform people about certain task and are often are used as reminders so people don’t forget. In conclusion, I have realised it would be best to use; posters, leaflets, emails and a website. This is because posters can be done by our own personnel as one person is expertly